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It was the end of January when my group was travelling north from Petra through the King’s Highway, in Jordan. It was the very moment when the Egyptian revolution of 2011 had started and we learnt about it a few days earlier, while crossing the Israelite-Jordan border (see Mount Sinai Trekking). But we did not stop our study trip and continued to discover Jordan’s archaeological treasure till the time we had to come back to Sinai, in Egypt.

Travelling around Jordan. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

Madaba in Jordan

After having stopped at one of large Crusader castles – the Kerak, we headed off to Madaba, the city situated half an hour south of the capital. “It is a relatively small [urban area] that is nowadays home to around 60,000 people” (Esparza 2017). Throughout history, the site has been populated by “the Moabites, the Nabateans, the Romans, the Byzantine, the Rashidun and the Umayyad” (Ibid.). It “is now home to the biggest Christian community in all of Jordan, proportionally speaking: both Catholics and Greek Orthodox make up around [ten percent] of the total population of Madaba (Ibid.) and their origins reach the times of Jesus Christ (Mack 2018). “Archaeologists affirm Madaba has been inhabited since the Middle Bronze Age” (Esparza 2017). The Bible itself mentions Madaba twice (Numbers 21:30; Joshua 13:9) (Ibid.). “The city then stood in the very borders of the Moabite empire [but] during Roman (and consequently, Byzantine) rule, it belonged to the broader Arabian Province, founded by Trajan to substitute the Nabatean Kingdom. It was during those centuries, from the [second to the seventh], when the Christian community of the city established itself” (Ibid.).

The nineteenth century Greek Orthodox Church, dedicated to Saint George. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

What did the Middle East and, precisely, the Holy Land look like in the early days of Christianity (till around 614 AD)? Today, those days are brought to life by a legendary, ancient mosaic forming a map on the floor of Saint George’s Church in Madaba, in Jordan (Stakelbeck 2018).

Early Christian mosaic map within a modern church

MOSAIC a design made by cementing small pieces (tesserae) of hard, coloured substances (e.g. marble, glass, ceramic or semi-prcious stones) to a base.
(Lucie-Smith 2003:141)

Dr. Merav Mack showing the patches of the mosaic under the carpet; in the shot from the documentary: “The Legendary Madaba Map: World’s Oldest Map of the Holy Land” Source: Mack, M. (2018) “The Legendary Madaba Map: World’s Oldest Map of the Holy Land”. In: Stakelbeck, E. (2018) The Watchman with Erick Stakelbeck.

Dr. Merav Mack (2018), a research associate from German Protestant Institute of Archaeology in Amman, calls the mosaic one of the oldest maps in history of the Holy Land. “Originally, the map measured 21×7 meters, and was made with more than two million ‘tesserae’ (mosaic stones)” (Esparza 2017). Nowadays, its patches cover of the floor space in the apse of the active and rather modest nineteenth century Greek Orthodox church, yet adorned with some of the most beautiful icons in the region (Esparza 2017; Mack 2018; Raezer 2020). The modern church was built on the site of the sixth century Byzantine temple (Rogoff 2013; Mack 2018). There, the mosaic map was originally designed on the floor of the apse. While a service is going on in the church, carpets are rolled down all over to protect the remains of the mosaic, and when the service is over, the carpets are rolled up again for visitors coming inside the church to expose the mosaic map (Mack 2018).

Intriguing characteristics

“Interestingly, the map is not oriented northwards, like modern maps are” (Esparza 2017) but to the East, towards the altar of the church (Esparza 2017; Mack 2018). In its center, there is an elliptical layout of the Holy City – Jerusalem (Sani 2014; Mack 2018). And although the map also features other famous and significant cities of the region, such as Jericho, Ascalon and Gaza (Mack 2018), it especially constitutes a unique guide to the Old City of Jerusalem, represented with all its major characteristics (Rogoff 2013). And irrespective of some minor errors in its layout (Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995), the Madaba map remains one of the most important and revealing representation of the sixth century Christian Middle East (Esparza 2017). It is features more than one hundred and fifty cities, towns, and villages (Ibid.), “including some exceptionally intriguing symbols that, according to some archaeologists, represent pilgrimage places” (Ibid.).

One of the boats floating on the Dead Sea. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

At the top of the map, there is a representation of the Dead Sea with the blue horizontal stripes symbolising waves, on which two boats are floating (Mack 2018). Inside them, there are sitting human figures (Ibid.). They are now defaced, which is apparently the result of the Muslim rule in the area (Ibid.). In the sixth century, when the map was created, the whole depicted land was under the Eastern Christianized Roman Empire: there were monasteries scattered densely around, especially in the desert, housing around five thousands monks (Rogoff 2013; Mack 2018).

The River Jordan with two fishes facing each other. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

The map also shows the part of land where the mosaic is preserved today, which is in the hills, on the eastern side of the River Jordan (Mack 2018). The latter is shown as a ribbon of water with depictions of fishes (Ibid.). Actually, in one section, there are “two fishes facing each other. One of them seems to be swimming back from the Dead Sea, while the other swims towards it, in the Jordan River. But it is well known that fish cannot survive in the Dead Sea […] Therefore, most historians and archaeologists interpret this to symbolize a meeting point for Christians” (Ibid.), for one of their early symbols was fish. Additionally, the River Jordan is important as the site of Jesus’ Baptism (Mack 2018). The city of Madaba, itself should be located somewhere in the hills, at the point where the map is unfortunately cut off and ruined (Ibid.). Generally, “much of the map’s tiles have been chipped away or been destroyed but a large contiguous piece of the map still exists illustrating both locations and names ranging from geographic features to cities” (Liza B 2020).

Η ΑΓΙΑ ΠΟΛΙϹ ΊΈΡΟΥϹΑ[ΛΗΜ] (Greek: The Holy City of Jerusalem)

The Holy City of Jerusalem in the sixth century. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

Generally, “the mosaic covers lands from Egypt to Lebanon, including sites such as Bethlehem and Gethsemane, but [as it is underlined above], the gem of the mosaic is the detailed representation of the city of Jerusalem” (Liza B 2020). The picture of Jerusalem is additionally highly ideological (Mack 2018). The city “was considered the navel of the earth, [as the place] of God’s salvation history” (Sani 2014), and so physically and metaphorically situated at the very heart of the contemporary Christian world (Mack 2018). And although it was depicted “completely out of proportion to the scale of the map, [it was] entirely in proportion to its historical and spiritual significance. [Accordingly], the detail of the Holy City is remarkable, down to the level of identifiable structures” (Rogoff 2013). Jerusalem of the sixth century “was an expansion of the Aelia Capitolina, as it was rebuilt and renamed by pagan Rome 400 years earlier” (Ibid.).

From a general layout to details

The Madaba map reflects Jerusalem’s contemporary landmarks: the Holy City is surrounded around by thick walls, protected by nineteen towers (Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995). “The map assumes an oblique perspective, as if the viewer were standing atop a very high mountain and looking eastward (north is on the left)” (Raezer 2020). Actually, “a viewer in Jordan would look westward for a view of Jerusalem (north is on the right). The eastward vantage suggests that the artist was likely creating the mosaic based on a map prototype that was designed in the West, likely in Constantinople” (Ibid.). According to the perspective applied in the Madaba map, “the western part of the city-wall is shown from outside, the eastern part from inside” (Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995).

Starting from left, that is to say, the north part of the city, there is the largest gate of Jerusalem consistent with Damascus Gate (1), and called Saint Stephen’s Gate in the sixth century (Rogoff 2013; Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995). The gate is ﬂanked by two towers and leads to an oval square with the tall column topped probably with the statue of the emperor Hadrian (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995). The Arabic name of the gate, Bab el-Amud, which means the Gate of the Column, indicates that it existed yet after the Arabs’ invasion in the seventh century (Rogoff 2013). From the east, the city is opened by the so-called Gate of the Sheep Pool (2) (today’s Saint Stephen’s Gate) (Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995). To the south of it, there is the Gate Beautiful (3), aka Golden Gate, leading to the temple area, and farther, there is Dung Gate (4), seen from a different perspective than the previous three (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995).

Jerusalem on the Madaba Map. Photo by Unknown author (2005). Public domain. Photo source: “Madaba Map” (2020). In: Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia.

In the south of the city, there is Sion Gate (5), from which the main street goes across the city to Damascus Gate (1) (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995). In the west, there is Jaffa Gate (6), called Gate of the Tower in the sixth century, which is depicted here from the front. (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995).

From north to south

The Cardo Maximus (the main street in Ancient Roman cities) is running across the city, from north to south, that is to say, from Damascus Gate (1) to Sion Gate (5) (Mack 2018; Liza B 2020). It is lined with a row of columns on each side and covered with a roof (Ibid.). “Its western colonnade is interrupted by the staircase of the Anastasis-Church (7), known as the Church of Holy Sepulchre [whereas] the eastern one ends in front of the Nea Theotokos-Church (12)” (Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995). Apparently, the mosaicist’s aim was to point out to the fact that the Cardo leads from both sides to the middle of the city, which is actually marked by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Mack 2018). In reality, the Church has never been centrally placed in the city (Ibid.). However, by placing it in the center of the map, the very idea of Christianity was expressed, namely the picture of heavenly Jerusalem with the holiest sites of Christian faith, where Jesus was crucified, buried, and where he finally resurrected (Ibid.). Authors of the mosaic also represented the Church’s details, such as four steps leading to its three gates, and at its top – the golden dome, which is hovering above the tomb of Christ (Ibid.; also see the illustration: “Jerusalem with its landmarks in Madaba Map”. In: David, Jennifer Raezer (2020). “Madaba Map: Mosaic of Jerusalem” In: Approach Guides).

Jerusalem with the main street (Cardo Maximus) across the city; from northern Damascus Gate to the southern Sion Gate. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

The surprising fact is that “the street network of Byzantine Jerusalem remains essentially unchanged today, even in the modern Jewish quarter in the southern part of the Old City” (Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995). Apart from the Cardo, there are four other streets depicted: the “second street begins on the east side of the oval square under an arch and runs to the south until the Dung Gate (4). It is colonnaded as well, but only the eastern colonnade is visible. […] The third street, starting from [the Gate of the Sheep Pool (St. Stephen’s Gate)] (2), is the beginning of the Christian ‘Via Dolorosa.’ [The] fourth street without columns — the Decumanus of Roman-Byzantine Jerusalem – starts from Jaffa Gate (6) and runs to the east. It seems to end at the main street (Cardo Maximus). The ﬁfth street, ﬁnally, branches off the Decumanus to the south: this is, probably, the Armenian Street” (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995).

Single buildings and constructions

Apart from centrally positioned Church of Holy Sepulchre, other main churches of Byzantine Jerusalem are also represented by the mosaicist (Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995). Baptistery of the Church of the Anastasis (8) “stands west of a light-brown trapezoidal space, probably the market-place(Forum) of Roman-Byzantine Jerusalem” (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995). However, “its identiﬁcation with the baptistery of the Holy Sepulchre [remains] uncertain. [Then, there is the] Church of the Sheep Pool (Probatica) (10), built in the first half of the [fifth] century over [the site] where Jesus healed a paralyzed man, [but it] was destroyed by the Persians in 614” (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995).

Jerusalem shown “upside down” with the golden dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (visible above it). Copyright©Archaeotravel.

Another church is the already mentioned “New Church of the Mother of God (Nea Theotokos) (12), built by the emperor Justinian and consecrated on November 20, 542, [which is] a fact important for dating the Madaba [map. Next, there are the] Basilica on Mount Sion (14), one of the most important churches in Jerusalem, second only to that of the Holy Sepulchre, [and] Diaconicon of the Basilica on Mount Sion (15), attached to the basilica in the south, for a time used as the Martyrium of St. Stephen. [Finally, there are also depicted the] Church of the House of Caiphas (16), [then the] Church of St. Sophia (17) [possibly standing] on the ruins of Pilate’s Praetorium, [and], the Church of St. Cosmas and St. Damianus (18)” (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995).

Old photograph from the “American Colony Photo Department”. Title: Madaba map mosaic, Jordan Abstract/medium: G. Eric and Edith Matson Photograph Collection Physical description: 1 negative. Photo by Matson Collection – Library of Congress Catalog. Created: between 1898 and 1946. Public domain. Photo source: “Madaba Map” (2020). In: Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia.

There are also two other buildings identiﬁable in the Madaba map (Sani 2014; see Donner 1992-1995). In the eastern part of the map, there is “Temple Esplanade (22), indicated by a black line of cubes only [and the] Citadel (al-Qalca) (19), [situated in the west] on the right side of the Jaffa Gate (6). The Citadel of Jerusalem had been improved by Herod the Great. The Herodian Citadel was protected by three strong towers. […] Two of them are represented on the Madaba map, the bigger one identical with what is still called the ‘Tower of David” (Ibid.; see Donner 1992-1995).

Madaba map’s dating

Preserved patches of the precious mosaic on the floor of the apse. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

The mosaic map was uncovered in Madaba in the nineteenth century, precisely in 1897 (Donner 1992-1995:13; Esparza 2017). It is dated back to the second half of the sixth century, which is also ascribed to its general style and special contents (Ibid.:13). By all accounts, the map tiles may have been composed into the floor mosaic probably during the reign of the Byzantine emperor, Justinian (527-565), and before 614, when Palestine was devastated by the Islamic Persians (Ibid.:14). Some observations on the map are also very useful in its dating (Ibid.:14). As mentioned above, in the depiction of Jerusalem, there is already the New Basilica of the Mother of God (Nea-Theotokos), which was consecrated in 542 (Ibid.:14). It is hence clear that the map itself was made later (Ibid.:14). Moreover, there are four churches on the map, which had been first mentioned in circa 570, namely the churches of Galgala, of the Egyptian Martyrs near Ascalon, of Saint Victor near Gaza, and the church of Zacharias (Ibid.:14).

Maps of the Mediterranean

Today, the map is one of the most significant archaeological “sources for the character and topography of Byzantine Palestine both west and east of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, as well as of Lower Egypt” (Donner 1992-1995:13). Consequently, it is the oldest known geographic map of Palestine in existence, except for “a small section of the so-called Peutinger Plates” (Donner 1992-1995:13). The latter comes from the fourth century A.D. and constitutes a road map of the Roman Empire, now preserved in Vienna, in Austria, as a medieval parchment copy of a possible Roman original record (Ibid.:13).

One side of the Jordan River. The Madaba map gives astonishingly many details. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

Such mosaic pavements as the Madaba map were widely common in the Christian Byzantine Empire, especially in the Mediterranean region and among them, there are also analogous mosaic representations of cities or even villages, for example the sixth century mosaics from Antioch or Jerash (Donner 1992-1995:13). However, the way in which they are represented substantially differs from the map depicted in the mosaic of Madaba (Ibid.:13). Mostly, the former give a more pictorial view of cities mainly depicted from the front (Ibid.:13). This manner of representation is also observed on the Madaba map but to a smaller degree (Ibid.:13). Yet more significant elements of the map under study, such as large cities, are usually depicted from above, which is a manner typical of a modern cartography (Ibid.:13). Additionally, all illustrated landmarks are accompanied by the Greek inscriptions for a better understanding of the picture. The writings are in different style (Ibid.:18): “black on a bright background, white on a dark background, red for texts of special importance. Some belong to cities or villages, others recall Biblical events or quote Biblical texts” (Ibid.:18).

Inferior and superior purposes of the Madaba map

The Holy Land seen in a bird’s eye view for the very first time. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

Even if the sixth century examples are similar in style to the Madaba map, contemporary exact parallels depicted in a bird’s eye view are not known (Donner 1992-1995:13). As far as the Madaba map’ contents are concerned, it could have been made for different purposes (Ibid.:14). One of them, although interior, “was surely the intention to offer information for Christian pilgrims” (Ibid.:30). Herbert Donner (1992-1995:14) claims that the Madaba map itself “looks like a cartographic illustration of two pilgrims’ reports from the sixth century: the first one written by the archdeacon Theodosius, […] the other one by an anonymous pilgrim from Piacenza, [the so-called Anonymous of Piacenza]. We may add the so-called Breviarius de Hierosolyma (Short Description of Jerusalem), […] containing only a description of the Holy City. Naturally, not everything that these reports describe can be found on the Madaba map” (Ibid.:14). Apart from being just a guide for contemporary pilgrims, one of the superior purposes of the map was “the realisation of the exceptional idea, totally unknown before the [sixth] century, to illustrate God’s salvation history in a map. On the mosaic map both Testaments […] are represented and the holy sites are [fully] displayed to the spectator’s eyes. Further purposes can be considered, for example, a clear liturgical [and symbolical] function” (Ibid.:30).

An original illustration of God’s salvation history in a map. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

Nonetheless, it can be concluded that the Madaba map was not just a metaphorical collections of Biblical illustrations with inscriptions but a real geographical and topographical map of the Holy Land (Ibid.:18). Accordingly, “it is not only the oldest but also the most exact map” (Ibid.:18) of the region before the appearance of modern cartography in the nineteenth century (Ibid.:18).

Madaba in the past and today

Madaba deliberately surrendered to the Muslims in 614. Consequently, the city was not destroyed and so the temple of Madaba, which was also dedicated to Saint George, may have been still used as an active church (Donner 1992-1995:14). Unfortunately, the eighth century brought an earthquake [and the fire] destroyed the temple. The city had subsequently been abandoned until the nineteenth century (Esparza 2017). “In the year 1884, when the new church of [Saint] George was being built in the place in which the old basilica stood, the mosaic was [uncovered], and incorporated in the new building across from the church’s magnificent iconostasis” (Ibid.). And even if it was made for the purposes of the early Christian Church, it is still valued in the eyes of modern pilgrims coming to the Holy Land, and visiting Madaba itself.

Christians made ten percent of the total population of Madaba and their origins reach the times of Jesus Christ. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

Having left Saint George’s church, we also studied another sixth century mosaic work, namely the so-called Hippolytus Hall mosaic in Madaba’s Archaeological Park. This time, however, the intricate floor mosaic was not designed for the church but for a Byzantine private villa, and represents not a Christian story, but an ancient myth. Such a melange is in abundance in Jordan and everywhere in the Middle East, where various aspects of different cultures, traditions and religions have collided or intertwined for centuries.

Featured image: Madaba Mosaics in the early Byzantine church of Saint George in Madaba, Jordan. Copyright©Archaeotravel .

By Joanna
Faculties of English Philology, History of Art and Archaeology;
University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland;
Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, Poland;
University College Dublin, Ireland.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

“Madaba Map” (2020). In: Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia. Available at <https://bit.ly/3bi5x0h>. [Accessed 16^th April, 2020].

Donner, H. (1992-1995) The Mosaic Map of Madaba: An Introductory Guide. Palestina Aniqua 7. The Netherlands, Kampen: Kok Pharos Publishing House.

Esparza, D. (2017) “The ‘Madaba Map’ is the oldest surviving original cartographic description of the Holy Land.” In: Aleteia. Available at <https://bit.ly/2XGi9sj>. [Accessed 16^th April, 2020].

Liza B (2020) ”Madaba Mosaic Map” In: Atlas Obscura. Available at <https://bit.ly/2V6c4U8>. [Accessed 14^th April, 2020].

Lucie-Smith, E. (2003) The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Art Terms. London: Thames & Hudson World of Art.

Mack, M. (2018) “The Legendary Madaba Map: World’s Oldest Map of the Holy Land”. In: Stakelbeck, E. (2018) The Watchman with Erick Stakelbeck. Available at <https://bit.ly/2RBuCcO>. [Accessed 14^th April, 2020].

Raezer D., J. (2020) “Madaba Map: Mosaic of Jerusalem” In: Approach Guides. Available at <https://bit.ly/3a469XF>. [Accessed 16^th April, 2020].

Rogoff, M. (2013) “A Mosaic of Jerusalem on the Ancient Madaba Map” In: Haaretz. Available at <https://bit.ly/3a7gRJs>. [Accessed 14^th April, 2020].

Sani, E. (2014) “Madaba Map: The Holy City of Jerusalem” In: Flickr. Available at <https://bit.ly/2ydxrKr>. [Accessed 15^th April, 2020].

Stakelbeck, E. (2018) “The Legendary Madaba Map: World’s Oldest Map of the Holy Land” In: The Watchman. Available at <https://bit.ly/2RBuCcO>. [Accessed 14^th April, 2020].

The Holy Land Translated into a Mosaic of the Church
April 18, 2020 Joanna Pyrgies 1 Comment
One of the world’s greatest museums is situated in Turin, in the north of Italy. It is the only museum other than Cairo’s wholly dedicated to Egyptian art and archaeology.

Drawing from a Scratchpad

Among multiplied and various artifacts exposed there, I would like to pay your attention to one small and a very fragile object of the size of 20 x 15 cm. It’s a painting, or more precisely a drawing on a limestone ostracon representing an Egyptian young girl caught in an acrobatic position. An ostracon itself is a potsherd, usually used as a writing or painting surface. At that time it may have served as a scratchpad.

Ostracon showing a dancer in an acrobatic position. Limestone, New Kingdom, 19th-20th Dynasty (1292-1076 BC). Deir el-Medina. Drovetti collection (1824). Cat. 7052. Creative Commons (CC). Deir el-Medina. Drovetti collection (1824). Museum location: Sala 06 Vetrina 06. Cat. 7052 (2018). In: Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy.

An Acrobatic Somersault

The object comes from the ancient Egyptian village, Deir el-Medina, dating back to the period of the New Kingdom (between 16th and the 11th century BC.). For over four centuries, Deir el-Medina had been home to highly skilled architects, temples and tombs builders, artists and various craftsmen staying in the service of the pharaoh. Thy lived there with their families but usually spent the entire week at work in the Valley of the Kings and Queens. A village artists must have been an author of the drawing probably representing one of girls living in the same community. Village women also served to the pharaoh but as dancers and singers in local temples. Egyptian Dancers played an important role in ancient Egypt. Not only was dancing a form of entertainment but it was mainly associated with religious ceremonies.

The depicted girl is a dancer. She is naked, except for a short black kilt with a decorative patterns on it and circular earrings of gold. The girl is probably performing an acrobatic somersault of a ritual dance. The artist is believed to have drawn first the body and then the head by rotation of the ostracon to a position where the profile could be done in the usual way. After a historian of art, William H. Peck, this way of making the drawing is suggested by the placement of the earring in defiance of the laws of gravity, and a rather unnatural way in which the neck was joined with the shoulders, with strongly elongated arms and legs. Also the shape of the dancer’s breast seemed to be sketched as if the artist imagined a woman’s torso in a standing position.

Egyptian style of art

Creating all the elements of the entire scene separately was very characteristic of Egyptian style of art.

The photo is showing dimensions of the object by means of a ruler, which is 11.5 x 17 x 4 cm. Deir el-Medina. Drovetti collection (1824). Cat. 7052. Creative Commons (CC). Deir el-Medina. Drovetti collection (1824). Museum location: Sala 06 Vetrina 06. Cat. 7052 (2018). In: Turin Museum, Italy.

It is like in a case of a child drawing an object without a three-dimensional perspective, but in a way the object is perceived from their position of watching, with its major characteristics. Looking down on a puddle, they can see its shape and what is inside, but when they observe a tree, they see it in its vertical form, and not from the above (which is not possible without flying over the trees!). Now they put all these observed elements together, on one piece of paper and they receive a similar stylistically incoherent whole, created once by ancient Egyptians.

Crescent of the Goddess Nut

Representation of the Woman Dancer seems slightly naive, yet it is very subtle and graceful in its form, depicted with a great skill and imagination. The artistic quality of the design is exceptional and erotically charged. The bare-breasted female is bending nearly over reaching the floor with her stretched arms and despite the drawing’ simplicity, the young woman seems extremely flexible. You may have an impression she has been caught in a nimble and swift dance at the sound of vibrant music.

The air god Shu, assisted by other gods, holds up Nut, the sky, as Geb, the earth, lies beneath. Detail from the Greenfield Papyrus (the Book of the Dead of Nesitanebtashru). Photograph published 1997; artwork created c. 950 BC. Photo source: What Life Was Like on the Banks of the Nile, edited by Denise Dersin. Photographed by the British Museum; original artist unknown. Public domain. {{PD-US}}. In: Wikimedia Commons.

Her curly long hair touches the ground as her body is bending in a deep bow. As the author, Patrick Hunt has noticed, the Dancer’s pose looks like a reversal of the sky goddess Nut in her downward earth-nourishing bend. Nut connects the earth with the sky, and according to the Heliopolis beliefs, the goddess touches the ground only with the tips of her hands and fingers. Simultaneously, her body covered in stars takes the shape of a semi-circle, which immediately evokes a crescent and its associations with femininity.

Voices of Common Egyptians

Ancient Egyptian Music & Dance. Scene from Tomb of Nakht, 18th Dynasty, Western Thebes. Photo source: Carolinarh (2013). “Ancient Egyptian Tomb Art. Necropolis of Thebes” (unknown artist). In:Ars Artistic Adventure of Mankind. The History of Art through the millennia.

Female dancers are usually depicted on tomb walls and temple walls. They are represented nearly naked with golden belts around their waits and collars around their necks. They are wearing jangling bracelets on arms, big earrings, and wigs, unlike our Dancer from Deir el Medina who is represented with her natural hair. All of them are caught in various poses – in profile, in three-quarter profile and even en face, free from being frozen in a hieratic posture of the upper class. They seem simply comfortable and full of life.

I came across the drawing of a female dancer while I was studying for an exam in the first year of studies of History of Art. It caught my eye from the very first moment, maybe because it was not created for formal purposes but probably for pleasure or training as a sketch. I don’t know why an artist chose to draw a dancing woman but his work now can tell us a story about simple people who once lived in Egypt.

‘On the outskirts of Deir el-Medina, the villagers once had attempted to find a water source’, explains Joann Fletcher, an Egyptologist. ‘They dug down and eventually they reached more than fifty meters. They wanted to become self-sufficient in water but sadly for them they never did, and what the pit did become was a community dump, and as such became a mine of information. And when this pit and its surroundings were excavated by archaeologists, they made some remarkable discoveries, and the ostracon with the drawing was one of the findings among thousands of these pieces of pottery and stone: some with painted pictures, many with words giving us the real history of the village. These are their notes, reminders, love songs, laundry list, the very voices of common Egyptians.’

Featured image: Dancer, Deir el Medina. Ancient Egyptian depiction of topless dancer with elaborate hairstyle and hoop earrings in gymnastic backbend, on ostrakon (potsherd). Created: 1292-1186 BC. Public Public domain. Photo and caption source: “Dance in “Ancient Egypt” (2021). In: Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia.
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Old Kilcullen is a spectacular ecclesiastical site located on top of a small hill, offering breathtaking views of the surrounding countryside that stretch as far as the eye can see. From this elevated vantage point, one can appreciate the lush greenery and rolling landscapes that characterize the area, including the massive hill-fort, Dún Ailinne, which was once the seat of the Kings of Leinster. This historic site not only boasts rich archaeological significance, but it also serves as a testament to the region’s long and storied past, where ancient traditions and legends intertwine with the natural beauty of the landscape, captivating visitors and locals alike who come to explore its wonders and immerse themselves in its heritage.

Irish Rebellions

During the Irish Rebellion of 1641, which marked the beginning of the Confederate Wars in Ireland, the site experienced a tumultuous series of events, initially being taken by Parliamentary forces before ultimately falling into the hands of the Royalist army. This shifting control exemplified the chaotic landscape of Ireland during this tumultuous period. In 1647, the site was retaken by the Parliamentarians, who, in a show of power and a desire to erase the Royalist presence, burned it to the ground, leaving behind significant scars of destruction. The site endured further significant damage during the upheaval of the 1798 rebellion, a critical moment in Irish history characterized by widespread discontent and armed resistance against British rule. Old Kilcullen emerged as a pivotal location during this time, as it was the site of the Battle of Kilcullen on 27th May 1798, where approximately 300 Irish rebels took a strong position, entrenched in the old graveyard. Their initial success in the first phase of the conflict was met with fierce resistance as they were ultimately driven out by General Dundas. It was during this fierce battle that the iconic round tower was partially destroyed, and the Romanesque church suffered extensive damage, marking a poignant moment in the site’s history. Drawings of the site in the 18th century, prior to the rebellion, depicted a well-preserved and complete structure, reflecting a time of tranquility and religious significance, which sharply contrasts with the devastation that occurred during these violent conflicts. This juxtaposition serves as a reminder of the turbulent history of Ireland during this period, leaving an indelible mark on the landscape and the memories of those who lived through it.

Remnants of Ancient Past

Apart from these recent dramatic events having taken place on the hill of Old Kilculle, there is much more ancient history ascribed to this place, deeply rooted in Ireland’s rich heritage. The monastery of Old Kilcullen was founded as early as in the 5th century by Saint Patrick, who is regarded as the foremost patron saint of Ireland and played a crucial role in the spread of Christianity throughout the region. Over the centuries, this sacred site has witnessed the ebb and flow of time, with much of its original architecture eroded but still whispering stories of the past. There are only a few remaining remnants today on the site, serving as a window into the historical milestones of this once-prominent monastery. Notably, there is a stump of a round tower from the 11th century, a testament to the architectural ingenuity of the time, as well as the remains of a Romanesque Church from the 12th century that hints at the community’s devotion and artistic spirit. The shafts of two granite crosses stand proudly, signaling the artistry of early Irish stone masons, and an undecorated base of the third one adds mystery to the site’s narrative. The shaft of high crosses comes from the 9th or 10th centuries, exemplifying the evolving styles and influences over the years. The sculpture of the smaller shaft is better preserved, and perhaps it can be tentatively interpreted to reveal insights into the cultural and religious influences that shaped the region during its early medieval period.

West Face of the West Shaft

The  west face of the shaft seems now the most complex. The third panel up perhaps shows Samson slaying the lion. I believe it is rather a representation of David, while Samson is represented on the north side of the same shaft. Below, there is either a scene showing Christ entering to Jerusalem or a famous Coptic scene of the Flight into Egypt. As a donkey is turned to right, it means that Infant Jesus has  just fled Bethlehem and is on his way to Egypt. The other way round would mean the Holy Family  is coming back to their Land. The imagery of the Flight into Egypt, with the donkey turned right and a palm tree in the background, can be also prefigure the scene of Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem. At the bottom, we can observe five human heads, the upper part of the damage scene. The fourth scene up bears a horseman blowing a trumpet. Finally, we can see the lower part of Crucifixion being once the part of the scene in the head of the cross.

Protagonist of the North Side

The top panel of the north side of the same shaft may illustrate Cain slaying his prostrate brother Abel with an axe. It is an enigmatic scene. On the north side of the shaft there are three panels alltogether. In the middle, there is an  interlace, and at the bottom, there is David slaying the lion. The top panel on the north side is most famous of all carved in Old Kilcullen. Apart from two characters, there are three mysterious objects: there is a  square, an object looking like a lady’s bag, and a sort of a stick. The square is interpreted  as the altar from the scene of Abel and Cain, yet two remaining objects have no meaning in this scene. Some scholars translate this dramatic scene as an episode showing from the life of a bishop Saint Mac Tail, who died in 548. Tradition goes that Saint Patrick had placed Mac Tail as Bishop of Old Kilcullen. However, dates seem incorrect for this with Mac Tail’s death usually given at 548 while the founding of the site is often given as 448. He was called “the son of adze”, the founder of Kilcullen, represened while smitting the enemy who is lying dead below. The objects around him would signify respectively the Gospel book, just behind his head, the crozier in his hand, and finally this mysterious bag would be a (hand) bell, typically held by Irish monks. In this case, this biblical scene changes and has a historic meaning.

Flight into Egypt on the Isles

Nevertheless, the biblical scenes of both New and Old Testaments prevailed in carvings of high Irish crosses. The Flight into Egypt, for example, is a story recounted in the Gospel of Saint Matthew and in New Testament Apocrypha. It is a story especially repeated in Coptic Egypt. According to the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Holy Family’s journey in Egypt lasted 3 years, 6 months, and 10 days. The pilgrimage route that exists now in Egypt consists of 25 sites, tracing the Holy Family’s steps along their way. The scene often appears on the British Isles.

Lion Slayers

Very famous are also biblical heroes killing the lion. The Bible text says that “the Spirit of the Lord came upon (Samson) in power so that he tore the lion apart with his bare hands as he might have torn a young goat” (Judges 14:6). Killing a lion is a very common biblical subject. It appears in the episode of Samson as well as in the story of David, who kills the lion, the bear, and the Giant. Such a motive is also shared by Mesopotamian or Greek myths of such heroes as Gilgamesh or Hercules. In the Christian context, it stands for the victory of faith over seemingly stronger evil powers.

From Ancient Mesopotamia to Early Christian Ireland

The south side of the shaft has also three panels that are intricately designed. They show some kind of ornament with elaborate figural representations adorning both the top and the bottom panels. The top panel features a captivating human interlace, showcasing the skillful artistry of the period, while the bottom panel bears a magnificent tree of life, a symbol of growth and renewal, meticulously guarded by two winged quadrupeds that add an air of mystique to the scene. The scene is typical of biblical imagination, coming from ancient Mesopotamia, where such narratives were woven into the cultural fabric, reflecting the values and beliefs of the society at that time.

East Face Announcing the Gospel

The east face of the shaft is very worn and damaged, yet it once proudly displayed three intricately carved panels, each adorned with four figures that possibly represented the Apostles. Although the panels are eroded today, the characters of the 12 Apostles must have been rendered individually with various figure features. They once held significant meanings and narratives from biblical accounts, inviting contemplation and reverence from those who gazed upon them. Some of the figures, in particular, once bore books, which likely symbolized their roles as bearers of Christian knowledge and teachings. Over time, the elements have dulled the clarity of these images, but traces of their former glory still hint at the artistry and devotion that went into their creation, reminding us of the historical and spiritual legacy captured in this ancient relic.

The Eastern Shaft

The taller, also known as eastern, of the two shafts appears to have had some sculpture before  but this is now very damaged so the details are no longer recognizable, so this is why it cannot be interpreted as much as the West shaft. The Round Tower of the monastic site in Old Kilcullen is mainly built of granite and comes from the 11th century. It measures 11 metres in height with its doorsill at 1,8 metre. It possibly represents a sub-species of half-size towers. It has a round headed door with inclined door jambs. There is just one small lintelled window in the drum.

The Royal Site

Old Kilcullen is 2 kilometres south of Kilcullen village. The monastic site is on an elevated area, overlooking the surrounding countryside. Old Kilcullen is a significant and historical site. The Vikings attacked it twice, in 932 and in 944 or in 1114. The raid of 936 saw 1000 prisoners being taken, according to the Annals of the Four Masters. From its 5th century origins the site grew in size into a walled town during the Norman period. At this time there were defensive walls, seven towers and a castle, none of which has survived. In 1319 a bridge was erected over the Liffey river nearby and a town started to develop here which is today Kilcullen. When this town started to develop Old Kilcullen went into a steady decline. The old monastic site is today a secluded place, worth stopping for a few minutes to  relax and admire a beautiful view of Wicklow mountains and towards Dún Ailinne, the great royal site of early Gaelic Ireland, where the kings of Leinster were inaugurated. The graveyard is still in use today.

Fetured image: The view of Old Kilcullen Monastic Site, County Kildare. Photo by Felipe Almeida. Copyright©Archaeotravel. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

By Joanna
Faculties of English Philology, History of Art and Archaeology.
University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland;
Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, Poland;
University College Dublin, Ireland.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Dempsey, J., 2012. ‘Irish Hi gh Crosses. Old Kilcullen’, in Megalithic Ireland. (accessed 12th December, 2024).

Harbison, P., 1994. Irish High Crosses with the Figure Sculptures Explained. Drogheda: The Boyne Valley Honey Company.

Richardson H, Scarry, J., 1990. An Indroduction to Irish High Crosses. Dublin: The Mercier Press.

Nelligan, T. P., Shelton, J., McClean, P., Shroff, V., 2015. Old Kilcullen, ‘Round Tower, High Cross and Church, Co. Kildare, in The Standing Stone. (accessed 12th December, 2024).

KFLHG, 2024. Rebellion Towns & Villages. Old Kilcullen, in kildarelocalhistory.ie. (accessed 12th December, 2024).

Sourke, S. Old Kilcullen West High Cross in 3D, in kildarelocalhistory.ie. (accessed 12th December, 2024).



From Biblical Samson to Irish Rebels. Stories of Heroes of Old Kilcullen Monastic Site.
December 10, 2024 Joanna Pyrgies Leave a comment
Off the coast island of Lindisfarne was a major stop on our way through the historic region of Northumbria (modern-day County Northumberland). To reach the island, we needed to cross the causeway that twice a day is covered by the tide. We had checked the tide table before our arrival, as at high tide, the causeway is completely submerged underwater, and the island is cut off. At high tides. it is also possible to reach the island but only using a ferry.

On the following day, we also took a ferry to land on the island. However, at the high tide, almost everything is closed and the island along with its inhabitants seems to fall asleep. At that time, it was difficult to visit its monuments so crossing the causeway is necessary if you are, like us, interested in its history and outstanding remnants of its turbulent past. The island is also accessible on foot, like once for hermits and pilgrims. It takes about two hours to walk to the Island from the causeway. The Pilgrims route is about 5 kilometers long but not advisable at dusk or in poor weather conditions.

Remnants of the Holy Island

Lindisfarne is today a part of the Northumberland Coast, which is said to be an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The island is situated in the north-east of England, just a few kilometers south of the border with Scotland. Lindisfarne Island, also known as the Holy Island since the Norman times, played an important role in the religious life of England, and it was one of the most significant centers of early English Christianity. The ruins now visible on the island belong to the twelfth-century Priory that claims direct descent from the early monastery. There is also a twelfth-century church dedicated to Saint Mary, and the picturesque silhouette of Lindisfarne Castle, built in the sixteenth century for defensive reasons. The island is relatively small; it measures almost 5 kilometres wide (W-E), and 3 kilometres long (N-S), with hardly 180 inhabitants. This number, however, grows during summer with incoming visitors, especially when the tide is out. Already in June, one can observe a growing number of cars and coaches crossing the causeway.

Monks and Kings

In ancient Celtic times, the island was called by the native Britons Medcaut or Insula Medicata, in Latin, which possibly stands for ‘healing island’, whereas the later name ‘Lindisfarne’ may have derived from the name of a people, called Lindissi or Lincolnshire. Back in the sixth century A.D., the island was long home to religious people, known as the Culdees, who were members of ascetic Christian monastic and eremitical communities of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and England. Apart from the hermites, there were also native residents, who are known as Islanders. The earliest settlement in the area of Lindisfarne was made by King Ida of the Anglians, one of the predecessors of the Anglo-Saxons. The settlement existed in the sixth century on the other side of the bay from the island. Following the general collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, Britain had fragmented into seven kingdoms, many ruled by Anglo-Saxon warlords, such as descendants of King Ida, who governed Northumbria. Apart from the Kingdom of Northumbria, there were regions of Wessex, Mercia, East England, Essex, Kent and Sussex.

In 547, Ida the ‘Flame-bearer’ seized the Britain Coastal Fortress, later known as Bebbanburg Castle, and founded a kingdom called Bernicia. His grandson Æthelfrith brought the neighbouring Anglian realm of Deira under his domination around 604 AD., creating the unified Kingdom of Northumbria, with the citadel Bebbanburg, the modern-day Bamburgh Castle. Perhaps, the most famous of the kings of Northumbria was Æthelfrith’s son, Saint Oswald.  As Bede the Venerable writes, when Æthelfrith was killed in battle in 617 by a rival king, Oswald fled north to seek sanctuary with the Irish of Dalriada. After 17 years, he returned to the Kingdom and retook the throne by force.

Between the East and West

After Saint Columba established the religious center and the island monastery of Iona, in the Kingdom of Dalriada, in 563, (modern-day Argyll), Columba’s family of monasteries came to include Derry, Durrow, and Kells in Ireland, and out of Iona – Lindisfarne, with its own foundtations in England, such as Melrose. On his return from Iona, King Oswald had brought with him Irish monks of the Columban Church, who converted pagan Northumbria’s Anglo-Saxons. Consequently, the conversion was not limited to just a royal household, as it was practiced by missionaries sent to the British Isles by the Roman Church from 597. Eventually, in 635AD. the monastery on the Island of Lindisfarne was founded by Saint Aidan from Iona and his companions to become an important center of medieval Christianity.

FROM LINDISFARNE TO THE HOLY ISLAND: BETWEEN THE CELTIC AND ROMAN CHURCHES. Photos by Felipe Almeida. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

The successor to Lindisfarne bishopric was Saint Cuthbert, who had become inspired by Saint Aidan’s life and followed a monastic conduct of the Hiberno-Scottish Church, with a particular taste for emulating the eremitic traditions of the early monks of the eastern and Egyptian deserts. The latter lived like hermits but still were part of monastic communities, which was in contrast with the communal living in Western monasticism. Living in such isolated places as Iona or Lindisfarne (not to mention Skellig Michael), where the former is an island and the second is cut off by tides, Celtic hermits visibly followed the way of Egyptian Fathers’ withdrawing to the desert. As a nominant scholar says, Celtic monks had replaced the desert with the ocean …

Hermit-Like Saint Cuthbert

After Saint Cuthbert’s death, in 687 A.D., miracles attributed to him caused Lindisfarne to become a place of pilgrimage, and the monastery acquired great wealth and status. The cult of Saint Cuthbert also consolidated the monastery’s reputation as a center of Christian learning.  One of the results was the production of the early medieval masterpiece of an illuminated book,  now known as the Lindisfarne Gospels, which were created on the island in the early eighth century.

Even today, the Holy Island is famous for its two great Bishops, Saint Aidan, who came together with his followers from Iona, invited by King Oswald, in the seventh century, and Saint Cuthbert, who first came to Lindisfarne as a prior in the 70s of the seventh century. Saint Aidan remained the Bishop of Lindisfarne until he died in 651 A.D., and his death had an impact on young Cuthbert, who according to a legend, saw the soul of Saint Aidan being taken by angels to heaven. It was the very moment when he decided to become a monk.

On the Verge of the Viking Age

The growing wealth of the monastery at the end of the seventh century and throughout the eighth century invited some unwanted visitors.

Vikings came to Lindisfarne in 793 in what was the first major attack on Europe. People from Britain had encountered the Vikings yet before their massive raid on Lindisfarne. Yet, it was the first major attack and it was shocking not only in the brutality of it but also the fact that it took place in the heart of Christian Northumbria. Many monks were killed or enslaved, and the event is often regarded as the beginning of the Viking Age.

An Oasis in the Modern World

With its ancient associations, the Castle, and Priory ruins, Lindisfarne remains today a holy site and place of pilgrimage for many. The island is a thriving community with a busy harbour, shops, hotels, and inns. There is much to see on the island: birdwatching, fishing, golf, painting, photography, and, of course, history are just some of the activities to be enjoyed on the Holy Island today.

Featured image: The view of the Holy Island with the charming silhouette of Lindisfarne Castle from the 16th century. Photo by Felipe Almeida. Copyright©Archaeotravel. Copyright©Archaeotravel.

By Joanna
Faculties of English Philology, History of Art and Archaeology.
University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland;
Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, Poland;
University College Dublin, Ireland.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Brown, M.P., 2004. Painted Labyrinth. The World of the Lindisfarne Gospels. London: The British Library.

Simpson, D. ‘Lindisfarne. Island and causeway’, in England’s North East. (bit.ly/4bpDlVo; accessed 27th June, 2024).



Holy Island in the Ocean of the Egyptian Desert
June 27, 2024 Joanna Pyrgies Leave a comment

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